THE ANTIQUITY OF ‘HINDU’: A JOURNEY THROUGH EPIGRAPHY, CLASSICAL TEXTS, AND LINGUISTIC EVOLUTION
-KG.M.MURUGAN

The narrative propagated by communist historians of India and Western Indologists suggests that the term Hindu was coined by Arabs in the 8th century, attributing its origin to the Persian linguistic tendency of substituting “S” with “H.” However, this assertion collapses under the weight of historical evidence. Numerous inscriptions dating back more than a millennium before this period contain references to Hindu or its derivatives, decisively refuting the claim that the term originated in the medieval Islamic world. Furthermore, strong linguistic and historical evidence indicates that the term 'Hindu' originated in the Saurashtra region of present-day Gujarat in Bharat, rather than in Persia.

An intriguing historical anomaly that caught my attention relates to a poem composed by Omar-bin-e-Hassham, the paternal uncle of Prophet Muhammad. This poem, remarkably, is an ode to Lord Shiva, and a manuscript of it is reportedly preserved in the Makhtab-e-Sultania library in Istanbul, Turkey. This revelation led me to consider a broader spectrum of claims that circulate on various platforms—most notably, the assertion that the Kaaba was originally a Shiva temple. While I remain cautious in evaluating such assertions, the undeniable fact that Prophet Muhammad’s own uncle composed a poetic tribute to Lord Shiva is profoundly thought-provoking and merits deeper scholarly investigation.

Antiquity and Origin of the Term ‘Hindu’

Prominent left-leaning historians such as Romila Thapar and D.N. Jha have argued that the term Hindu was popularized by the Arabs in the 8th century. However, their assertions rest on mere conjecture rather than substantiated historical evidence. They fail to provide any credible basis for their claims, nor do they cite primary sources to support their conclusions. Interestingly, even Arab Muslim chroniclers, who meticulously documented historical and cultural exchanges, do not make such an extravagant assertion.

A parallel theory, largely advocated by European Indologists, suggests that Hindu is a Persian derivative of Sindhu, owing to the alleged Persian phonetic tendency of replacing ‘S’ with ‘H.’ Yet, this hypothesis crumbles under scrutiny. If the Persians consistently followed this linguistic pattern, the very name Persia should logically have transformed into Perhia, which is demonstrably not the case. Such inconsistencies expose the speculative nature of this claim, which lacks substantive historical backing.

This paper critically examines these theories in light of extensive epigraphic and literary evidence drawn from Persian, Indian, Greek, Chinese, and Arabic sources. A thorough analysis reveals that the term Hindu, like Sindhu, has been in continuous usage since the Vedic age. While it is true that Hindu is a modified form of Sindhu, the linguistic transformation is not a Persian innovation but rather a reflection of the Saurashtran phonetic tradition, wherein ‘S’ is often pronounced as ‘H.’ This indigenous linguistic evolution points to Bharat’s own linguistic heritage rather than any foreign imposition, reaffirming that the roots of Hindu lie firmly within the civilizational fabric of Greater Bharat.

Epigraphic Evidence: Tracing the Antiquity of ‘Hindu’

The claim that the term Hindu emerged only in the 8th century CE due to Arab influence is not only misleading but also demonstrably false when examined against a vast corpus of epigraphic evidence spanning multiple civilizations. Inscriptions from the Achaemenid, Mauryan, and Sasanian empires establish the antiquity of the term Hindu—or its phonetic variants—by at least a millennium before the Common Era.

One of the earliest references appears in the inscriptions of the Persian monarch Darius I (520–485 BCE) found at Hamadan, Persepolis, and Naqsh-i-Rustam. These records explicitly mention a people referred to as Hidu, confirming that the term was in use over 500 years before the birth of Christ. This is further corroborated by the inscriptions of Darius’ successor, Xerxes I (485–465 BCE), at Persepolis, where the list of territories under his rule includes Hidu. Similarly, an inscription attributed to Artaxerxes II (404–395 BCE) on a tomb in Persepolis refers to three regions:

1. iyam Qataguviya (This is Satygidian)
2. iyam Ga(n)dariya (This is Gandhara)
3. iyam Hi(n)duviya (This is Hi(n)du)

The fact that the term Hindu (or its variants) was employed within the Achaemenid Empire demonstrates that its existence predates not only Arab usage but also Greek historiography, refuting any notion of a foreign-imposed nomenclature.

The Ashokan inscriptions (3rd century BCE) provide further substantial evidence of the widespread and established use of the term. Emperor Ashoka, in his rock edicts, repeatedly employs the expression Hida for India and Hida Loka for the Indian nation. These references appear over 70 times across different inscriptions, attesting to the antiquity and indigenous nature of the term.

For instance, in the Jaugadha Separate Rock Edict II, lines 3 and 4 proclaim:

"All men are my people. I desire for my people that they may be provided with all welfare and happiness. I desire for my people, including the people of Hind and beyond, and I desire for all men."

Further, in lines 7 and 8, the edict states:

"Dhamma may be followed, and the people of Hind and beyond may be served."

These inscriptions categorically establish that Hind was a recognized name for Bharat as early as the 3rd century BCE, shattering the erroneous claims of its Arab origin in the medieval period.

The Pahlavi inscriptions of Shahpur II (310 CE) further reinforce the antiquity of the term. The inscriptions from Persepolis bear the royal title:

Shakanshah Hind Shakastan u Tuxaristan dabiran dabir
(King of Shakastan, Minister of Ministers of Hind, Shakastan, and Tukharistan.)

This evidence from the Achaemenid, Mauryan, and Sasanian records decisively disproves the theory that Hindu originated in Arab usage. Instead, literary references extend its history even further back—to at least 1000 BCE, with strong indications of its presence as early as 5000 BCE. The weight of epigraphic and literary testimony makes it abundantly clear that Hindu is a deeply rooted indigenous term, firmly embedded in the civilizational continuity of Greater Bharat.

Evidence from Pahlavi and Avestan Texts: The Deep Antiquity of ‘Hindu’

The antiquity of the term Hindu finds strong validation in the Avestan scriptures, particularly in references to Hapta-Hindu, the Avestan equivalent of the Sanskrit Sapta-Sindhu—the land of the seven rivers. The Avesta, the sacred text of the Zoroastrians, is dated by various scholars between 5000 BCE and 1000 BCE. This firmly establishes that Hindu and Sindhu are synonymous and have coexisted as linguistic and geographical markers since Vedic times. Given that Sindhu is an ancient term found in the Rigveda, the oldest known text of Bharat, it logically follows that Hindu is at least as old as the Rigveda itself, refuting any claims that it was a medieval or foreign creation.

Further reinforcing this antiquity is a remarkable reference in the Avestan Gatha ‘Shatir’, where the 163rd verse speaks of a meeting between the revered sage Veda Vyasa and King Gustashp (Vishtaspa), in the presence of Zarathustra (Zoroaster). In this verse, Veda Vyasa introduces himself with the words:

"Man marde am Hind jijad."
(I am a man born in Hind.)

This reference is of immense significance, as Veda Vyasa, the great compiler of the Mahabharata and the Vedas was an elder contemporary of Shri Krishna, placing him around 3100 BCE. If this Avestan record is accurate, it provides direct textual evidence that Hind was a well-recognized name for Bharat over five millennia ago.

The implications of this evidence are profound. It decisively challenges the false narrative that Hindu was a later invention, demonstrating instead that it is deeply rooted in the ancient civilizational and spiritual landscape of Bharat. The continuous use of Hindu across Avestan, Vedic, and later epigraphic traditions underscores its indigenous origin and its unbroken historical continuity.

Greek Usage: ‘Indoi’ as a Derivative of ‘Hindu’

The Greek adaptation of the term Hindu provides yet another layer of evidence for its deep antiquity. In classical Greek literature, the word Indoi (Ἰνδοί) was used to refer to the people of Bharat. This term is a softened form of Hindu, with the initial ‘H’ omitted due to the phonetic limitations of the Greek alphabet, which lacks an aspirate sound. This linguistic transformation follows a consistent pattern observed in Greek transliterations of foreign words, where aspirated consonants are often dropped.

The earliest recorded usage of Indoi can be traced back to Hekataeus of Miletus in the late 6th century BCE, followed by Herodotus in the early 5th century BCE. These Greek historians and geographers documented their knowledge of the lands east of Persia, referring to the inhabitants of the region as Indoi. This firmly establishes that a variant of Hindu was already in common usage in Greek literature at least by the 6th century BCE.

This Greek adaptation further disproves the claim that the term Hindu originated in the 8th century CE through Arab influence. The presence of Indoi in Greek texts centuries before the rise of Islam reinforces that Hindu was an already well-established term by that time. Additionally, the Greek usage aligns with the Persian Hidu, found in Achaemenid inscriptions of Darius I (520–485 BCE), corroborating the continuous and widespread recognition of Hindu across multiple ancient civilizations.

Thus, Greek literature provides yet another strong historical testament to the antiquity of the term Hindu, demonstrating its presence in global records well before the Common Era.

The Hebrew Bible: ‘Hodu’ as a Linguistic Cognate of ‘Hindu’

Yet another compelling piece of evidence attesting to the antiquity of the term Hindu comes from the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), which refers to Bharat as Hodu (הֹדּוּ). The term Hodu is a direct linguistic cognate of Hindu, demonstrating that the word was known beyond the Indian subcontinent and had found a place in ancient Hebrew texts.

The Book of Esther (1:1) in the Hebrew Bible explicitly mentions Hodu while describing the extent of the Persian Empire under King Ahasuerus (Xerxes I, 485–465 BCE):

"Now it came to pass in the days of Ahasuerus… which reigned from Hodu (India) even unto Cush (Ethiopia), over an hundred and seven and twenty provinces."

The presence of Hodu in the Hebrew Scriptures, which are traditionally dated to before 300 BCE, aligns perfectly with other historical references to Hindu and Sindhu found in Persian, Greek, and Indian sources. The consistency of this usage across diverse linguistic and cultural traditions further validates the antiquity and widespread recognition of the term Hindu.

Even in Modern Hebrew, the term Hodu continues to be used as the name for India, preserving a linguistic tradition that spans over two millennia. This long-standing continuity effectively debunks the false narrative that Hindu was a later invention by Arab or medieval sources. Instead, the evidence from the Hebrew Bible reinforces the fact that Hindu is an ancient and historically entrenched term, recognized across civilizations well before the Common Era.

The Chinese Testimony: ‘Hien-tu’ and ‘Yintu’ as Variants of ‘Hindu’

Ancient Chinese records provide yet another significant testimony to the antiquity of the term Hindu. As early as 100 BCE, Chinese annals mention the term Hien-tu (賢都) as a reference to Bharat. This early usage appears in historical accounts describing the movements of the Sai-Wang, a Central Asian people, who migrated southward and, in their journey, passed through Hien-tu before reaching Ki-Pin (identified with the region of Kashmir and Gandhara).

This reference establishes that the Chinese were already familiar with the term Hien-tu as a designation for the land and people of Bharat well before the Common Era. The phonetic resemblance between Hien-tu and Hindu is striking, further corroborating the linguistic continuity of the term across civilizations.

The later Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Fa-Hien (5th century CE) and Huen-Tsang (7th century CE), who traveled extensively through Bharat, used the slightly modified term Yintu (印度). Despite the phonetic shift, the affinity to Hindu remains unmistakable. Interestingly, Yintu continues to be the standard term for India in modern Mandarin Chinese today, highlighting an uninterrupted linguistic tradition spanning over 2,000 years.

The presence of Hien-tu and Yintu in Chinese historical texts serves as yet another powerful refutation of the erroneous claim that Hindu originated only in the medieval period due to Arab influence. Instead, the evidence demonstrates that the name Hindu—in its various phonetic adaptations—was recognized by diverse cultures, including the Chinese, long before the Islamic era. This further reinforces the antiquity and indigenous origins of the term Hindu, solidifying its place in the historical and civilizational legacy of Greater Bharat.

Pre-Islamic Arabic Literature: The Enduring Legacy of ‘Hind’ and ‘Hindu’

The antiquity of the terms Hind and Hindu is further reinforced by pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, which offers remarkable references to Bharat and its spiritual traditions. One of the most fascinating sources in this regard is the Sair-ul-Okul, an anthology of ancient Arabic poetry preserved in the Makhtab-e-Sultania Library in Istanbul, Turkey. This collection contains poetic compositions from pre-Islamic Arabia, including verses that explicitly mention Hind (India) and Hindu (Indians), demonstrating that these terms were well-known in the Arab world long before the rise of Islam.

Among the most significant works in this anthology is a Shiva Stuthi (hymn in praise of Shiva) attributed to Omar-bin-e-Hassham, the paternal uncle of Prophet Muhammad. This poem expresses deep reverence for Mahadev (Lord Shiva) and admiration for the spiritual ethos of Bharat, suggesting a profound awareness of Sanatana Dharma within pre-Islamic Arab society. Notably, Umar-bin-e-Hassham was one of the resident priests of the Shiva temple known as Kaaba, further strengthening the argument that Mecca once had deep Hindu connections.

Shiva Stuthi by Umar-bin-e-Hassham

Original Arabic Verse:

كفومل فكرا من علوم تب اسير
كلوون امتاول هوا وستجاخر
وتجاخيروبا ادن كلالوادي ليبوا
ولوكياناي جاتلي، حي يوما تب اسير
وأبالولها عجبوا أرميمان مهاديوا
مانوجايل إلامدين منهم وسياطور
وسحابي كيام فيما كامل هندى يوما
ويكولوم نا لاتباهن فوئنك توجار
مسسير أي أخلاق حسنن كولهم
نجومم أجا-أت ثم قبوله هندوا

Transliteration:

Kafavomal fikra min ulumin Tab asayru
Kaluwan amataul Hawa was Tajakhru
We Tajakhayroba udan Kalalwade-E Liboawa
Walukayanay jatally, hay Yauma Tab asayru
Wa Abalolha ajabu armeeman Mahadeva
Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
Wa Sahabi Kay-yam feema-Kamil Hinday Yauman
Wa Yakulam no latabahan foeennak Tawajjaru
Massayaray akhalakan hasanan Kullahum
Najumam aja-at Summa gabul Hindu

Translation:

The man who may spend his life in sin and irreligion,
Or waste it in lechery and wrath,
If at last he repents and returns to righteousness,
Can he still be saved?

If but once he worships Mahadeva with a pure heart,
He will attain the ultimate in spirituality.

Oh Lord Shiva! Exchange my entire life
For but a day’s sojourn in Hind (India),
Where one attains salvation.

One pilgrimage there secures for one all merit,
And the company of the truly great.

These verses illustrate the intimate awareness and admiration for Bharat’s spiritual traditions within the pre-Islamic Arab world. Not only do they acknowledge Mahadev as the supreme deity, but they also emphasize Hind as a sacred land where ultimate liberation (moksha) can be attained. The poet’s deep yearning for a visit to Bharat underscores the spiritual magnetism of Sanatana Dharma, which resonated beyond the subcontinent, even in the Arabian Peninsula.

Further Evidence from Pre-Islamic Arabic Poetry

Adding further weight to this evidence is another poem found in Sair-ul-Okul, attributed to Labi-bin-e-Akhtab bin-e-Turfa, a pre-Islamic Arab poet who is believed to have lived approximately 2300 years before Prophet Muhammad, placing him around 1700 BCE. His verses explicitly reference Hind, Hindu, and the four Vedas—Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva, demonstrating a profound knowledge of Vedic traditions in pre-Islamic Arabia.

An inscription of this poem is prominently displayed on the columns of the Laxmi Narayan Mandir (Birla Temple) in New Delhi, further testifying to its enduring significance.

The Recognition of ‘Hind’ and ‘Hindu’ in Pre-Islamic Arabia

The presence of the terms Hind and Hindu in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry negates the claim that these were later inventions. Instead, they existed in popular consciousness long before the 8th century CE and were widely acknowledged by Arab poets, scholars, and travelers. The reverence for Bharat’s spiritual traditions, especially Lord Shiva, further suggests that Sanatana Dharma had a lasting cultural impact on Arabia.

Additionally, historical findings such as King Vikramaditya’s inscription in Mecca and the presence of a Shiva Linga inside the Kaaba further reinforce the strong historical ties between the Arabian Peninsula and the Hindu civilization. These evidences collectively challenge colonial and Eurocentric narratives that attempt to limit the antiquity of ‘Hindu’ and ‘Hindustan’, proving that their origins are far older and deeply entrenched in the global spiritual consciousness.

Implications of Pre-Islamic Arabic References to ‘Hind’ and ‘Hindu’

These pre-Islamic Arabic literary references provide a direct challenge to the colonial and Marxist historian narrative that claims the term Hindu was first introduced by Arabs in the medieval period. The presence of ‘Hind’ and ‘Hindu’ in ancient Arabic poetry, composed centuries before Islam, confirms that the term was already well recognized in the broader Eurasian world. Moreover, the reverence for Bharat’s spiritual traditions, particularly the worship of Mahadev (Shiva) and the knowledge of the Vedas, suggests a historical connection between pre-Islamic Arabia and the civilizational heritage of Greater Bharat.

This evidence firmly establishes that Hindu is not a foreign or imposed term but an indigenous designation with deep historical continuity, widely acknowledged by various civilizations long before modern distortions attempted to obscure its origins.

The Divine Recognition of Bharat in Pre-Islamic Arabic Poetry

The spiritual eminence of Bharat (Hind) and its profound knowledge traditions were not only acknowledged within the subcontinent but also recognized and revered in pre-Islamic Arabic literature. The Sair-ul-Okul, an anthology of ancient Arabic poetry housed in the Makhtab-e-Sultania Library in Istanbul, contains verses that celebrate Bharat as a land of divine wisdom and enlightenment.

The following verses, composed centuries before Islam, reflect the reverence for Bharat’s spiritual legacy and its association with the Vedic tradition:

Aya muwarekal araj yushaiya noha minar Hinda e,
wa aradakallha manyonaifail jikaratun.
Oh, the divine land of Hind, blessed art thou,
Thou art the chosen land, showered with divine knowledge.

These lines unmistakably recognize Bharat as a sacred land, uniquely graced with spiritual wisdom. The poet expresses awe at the sanctity of Hind, identifying it as a repository of unparalleled divine knowledge.

Wahalatjali Yatun ainana sahabi akhatun jikra,
Wahajayahi yonajjalur rasu minal Hindatun.
That celestial knowledge shines with such brilliance,
Through the words of Hindu saints in fourfold abundance.

Here, the poet highlights how the luminous wisdom of Bharat radiates through its sages and saints, likening it to a celestial glow. The phrase fourfold abundance is a clear reference to the **four Vedas—Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva—**which form the foundation of Vedic knowledge.

Yakuloonallaha ya ahlal araf alameen kullahum,
fattabe-u jikaratul Veda bukkun malam yonajjaylatun.
God enjoins on all: follow with devotion,
The path shown by the Veda, with divine precept.

This verse explicitly underscores the universality of Vedic wisdom. The poet affirms that the Vedas are not just for Bharat but for all of humanity, presenting them as divine instructions meant to guide mankind toward righteousness and truth.

Wahowa alamus Sama wal Yajur minallahay Tanajeelan,
Fa e noma ya akhigo mutibayan Yobasshariyona jatun.
Overflowing with knowledge are Sama and Yajur for Man,
Brothers, follow the path which guides you to salvation.

The poet acknowledges the Sama Veda and Yajur Veda as divine revelations, emphasizing that their knowledge is meant for the spiritual elevation of mankind. He urges his brethren to embrace the wisdom of these scriptures, which illuminate the path to salvation.

Wa isa nain huma Rig Athar nasahin ka Khuwatun,
Wa asanat Ala-udan wabowa masha e ratun.
Also, the two—Rig and Athar(va)—teach us fraternity,
Taking shelter under their lustre dispels darkness.

Here, the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda are extolled as guiding lights that foster fraternity and dispel ignorance. The poet portrays the Vedas as a radiant shelter, offering protection and wisdom to those who seek enlightenment.

The Significance of These Verses

These remarkable poetic compositions provide compelling evidence that pre-Islamic Arabs were aware of and deeply respected Bharat’s ancient spiritual traditions. The references to the Vedas, Hindu sages, and the divine wisdom emanating from Hind challenge the narrative that Hinduism was unknown outside Bharat before the medieval period.

Moreover, these verses dismantle the claim that the terms Hind and Hindu were introduced by the Arabs only in the 8th century CE. Instead, they reveal that Hind and Hindu were widely known and revered even in pre-Islamic Arabia, reinforcing their antiquity and civilizational continuity.

This poetic testimony adds yet another layer of epigraphic, linguistic, and literary evidence that firmly establishes Bharat’s enduring influence on global spiritual traditions. It serves as a powerful reminder of the timeless legacy of Sanatana Dharma, whose wisdom was acknowledged and celebrated far beyond the geographical boundaries of Greater Bharat.

The Term ‘Hindu’ in Sanskrit Literature: A Profound Legacy

A widely propagated misconception by modern Anglicized historians is that the term Hindu is absent from Sanskrit literature. However, a careful examination of ancient texts reveals that this claim is baseless. Numerous Sanskrit scriptures, lexicons, and literary works dating back centuries explicitly use the term Hindu and its derivatives, often in profound philosophical and cultural contexts.

Defining ‘Hindu’ in Classical Texts

One of the earliest textual references to the term Hindu appears in the Meru Tantra (4th–6th century CE), a Shaiva text, which defines a Hindu in ethical and moral terms:

हीनं दुष्यति इति हिन्दुः

Hīnaṁ duṣyati iti Hinduḥ

 “A Hindu is one who rejects the ignoble and the mean.”

This definition establishes that being Hindu is not merely a geographical or racial identity, but rather a moral and ethical ideal based on righteousness, virtue, and elevated conduct. The essence of Hindutva (the Hindu way of life) is rooted in dharma—a commitment to noble virtues and an unwavering rejection of unrighteousness.

A similar sentiment is echoed in the Shabda Kalpadruma, an authoritative Sanskrit lexicon, which further reinforces the idea that a Hindu is one who upholds righteousness, shuns wickedness, and aspires toward higher spiritual and ethical ideals. These texts collectively emphasize that Hindu is not just a designation but a way of life, defined by one's actions, values, and adherence to Sanatana Dharma.

Hindu as a Sacred Identity: Brihaspati Agama

The Brihaspati Agama, a revered text in the Hindu tradition, provides both a geographical and spiritual definition of Hindustan:

हिमालयं समारभ्य यावत् इन्दु सरोवरम्।
तं देवनिर्मितं देशं हिन्दुस्थानं प्रचक्ष्यते॥

Himālayaṁ samārabhya yāvat Indu sarovaram,
Taṁ deva-nirmitaṁ deśaṁ Hindusthānaṁ pracakṣyate.

This verse proclaims that Hindustan extends from the Himalayas in the north to the waters of Indu (the Indian Ocean) in the south, defining it as a divinely ordained land (deva-nirmitaṁ deśam). The reference to the Himalayas symbolizes spiritual grandeur and resilience, while the vast ocean represents the boundless nature of its civilization.

This ancient declaration firmly refutes colonial and Eurocentric narratives that dismiss Hindustan as a mere geographical expression. Instead, it establishes Hindustan as a sacred civilizational entity, deeply rooted in the ethos of Dharma, culture, and historical continuity.

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The Warrior and Spiritual Identity: Parijat Haran Natak

The Parijat Haran Natak, an ancient Sanskrit drama, offers a profound definition of a Hindu, emphasizing both spiritual purification and warrior spirit.

तपसा पापं शुद्ध्यति, बुद्ध्या शुद्ध्यति वै मलम्।
शत्रून् हन्ति शस्त्रेण, स हिंदुरभिधीयते॥

Tapasā pāpaṁ śuddhyati, buddhyā śuddhyati vai malam,
Śatrūn hanti śastreṇa, sa Hindurabhidhīyate.

This verse declares that a true Hindu is one who purifies oneself through tapas (austerity and penance), cleanses the mind through wisdom, and upholds righteousness by vanquishing enemies through arms when necessary.

The dual nature of Hindu identity—both as a seeker of spiritual enlightenment and as a warrior against adharma—is deeply embedded in the concept of Dharma-Yuddha (righteous war). This philosophy underscores that while peace and self-purification are paramount, defense of righteousness through valor and strength remains an essential duty. This definition dismantles the false colonial portrayal of Hindus as a passive civilization, reaffirming the balance between jnana (wisdom) and shourya (bravery) in Hindu ethos.

Philosophical and Cultural Identity: Madhava Digvijaya

The Madhava Digvijaya, an important text detailing the philosophical triumphs of Adi Shankaracharya, provides a profound definition of a Hindu, encapsulating both spiritual principles and cultural values.

ॐकारं चिन्तयेद्यस्तु, कर्मपाकं तथैव च।
गावां पूजां समाचरेत्, भक्तिं भारतभूमिषु॥
दुष्टानां च निन्दकः स्याद्, स हिंदुरिति कीर्त्यते॥

Oṁkāraṁ cintayed yastu, karmapākaṁ tathaiva ca,
Gāvāṁ pūjāṁ samācaret, bhaktiṁ Bhāratabhūmiṣu,
Duṣṭānāṁ ca nindakaḥ syāt, sa Hinduriti kīrtyate.

This verse defines a Hindu as one who meditates upon Omkar, recognizing it as the primal cosmic sound, believes in karma (the law of action and consequence) and punarjanma (reincarnation), reveres the Gau Mata (cow) as sacred, and holds unwavering devotion to Bharat Bhumi (the land of Bharat). Furthermore, a Hindu is described as one who rejects and condemns evil.

This definition firmly establishes that Hindu identity is rooted in spiritual philosophy, ethical conduct, and cultural reverence rather than being confined to racial or geographical parameters. It underscores the foundational principles of Sanatana Dharma, reaffirming that Hindus are bound by a shared way of life that integrates metaphysical contemplation, moral responsibility, and deep-seated respect for the sacred traditions of Bharat.

Vriddha Smriti: The Moral Framework of a Hindu

The Vriddha Smriti, an ancient Dharmashastra text, provides a profound moral and spiritual definition of a Hindu, emphasizing noble conduct, reverence for sacred traditions, and adherence to Vedic wisdom.

हिनस्ति तमसां दोषान्, दीनानामुपकारकः।
वेदगौदेवताभक्तः, स हिंदुरिति स्मृतः॥

Hinasti tamasāṁ doṣān, dīnānām upakārakaḥ,
Vedagau-devatābhaktaḥ, sa Hinduriti smṛtaḥ.

This verse defines a Hindu as one who removes the darkness of ignorance (tamas), is compassionate and helpful to the downtrodden, and remains devoted to the Vedas, the Gau Mata (cow), and the divine (devas). The term Hindu here is associated not just with a cultural or geographical identity but with a way of life that embodies moral excellence, spiritual wisdom, and a commitment to upholding righteousness.

This definition reinforces that Hindu identity is deeply interwoven with Sanatana Dharma, where ethical living, devotion, and Vedic principles form the foundation of an individual’s life. It highlights that to be a Hindu is to embody compassion, knowledge, and unwavering reverence for the sacred aspects of existence.

Other Sanskrit Texts Referencing ‘Hindu’

Several other Sanskrit works mention the term Hindu, reinforcing its pre-Islamic and pre-colonial antiquity:

• Kalika Purana
• Bhavishya Purana
• Adbhut Kosh
• Medini Kosh
• Ram Kosh

Even the legendary Sanskrit poet Kalidasa employs a derivative form, Haindava, in his literary works, proving that the term was already in use in the classical era of Sanskrit literature.

The Deep-Rooted Legacy of the Term ‘Hindu’

Far from being a foreign coinage, the term Hindu has deep roots in Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy. It has been used in multiple contexts—spiritual, geographical, ethical, and cultural—to describe the identity of the people of Bharat. This rich textual evidence dismantles the colonial and Marxist distortions that falsely claim Hindu was an external appellation imposed by foreigners.

The term Hindu is not just a label; it is an embodiment of Dharma, representing a way of life that upholds truth, righteousness, devotion, and cultural pride.

Tracing the Origin of ‘Hindu’ and Its Connection to ‘Sindhu’

A prevalent theory suggests that the term Hindu emerged from the Persian linguistic tendency to replace the Sanskrit ‘S’ with ‘H’. However, upon closer examination, this explanation appears incomplete and inconsistent. If the transformation of ‘S’ into ‘H’ were a strict linguistic rule, we would expect Sindh to have universally become Hind, yet both terms exist simultaneously in Persian and Arabic traditions.

Furthermore, if this theory held, other names containing ‘S’ should have undergone the same transformation. However, this is not the case. The inscriptions of Persian emperors Darius and Xerxes, which refer to India as Hi(n)du, also use the term Sugd for Sogdiana. If the ‘S’ to ‘H’ shift were absolute, Sugd should have become Hugd, which did not happen. Similarly, the Pahlavi inscriptions of Shahpur II (310 CE) retain the ‘S’ sound in Shakastan and Tuxaristan, further contradicting this simplistic linguistic assumption.

The Sindhu-Hindu Connection: The Role of Saurashtra

While the Persian theory of transformation does not fully explain the origins of Hindu, it is undeniable that Hindu is a derivative of Sindhu. The real explanation lies in regional phonetic variations, particularly those found in Saurashtra (modern-day Gujarat). The tendency to replace ‘S’ with ‘H’ is a well-documented linguistic pattern in this region. Several local names illustrate this phenomenon:

• Sorath → Horath
• Somnath → Homnath

This regional phonetic tendency provides a more credible and organic explanation for the evolution of Hindu from Sindhu. Instead of being a foreign linguistic imposition, it emerges as a natural evolution within Bharat’s own linguistic traditions.

Vedic Linguistic Validation: Nirukta and Phonetic Rules

The transformation of ‘S’ to ‘H’ is not merely a regional phenomenon but also finds linguistic justification within the Vedic grammatical framework. According to Nirukta, an ancient treatise on etymology and phonetics, the interchangeability of ‘S’ and ‘H’ is a permissible phonetic shift in the Vedic language. This reinforces that Hindu is an ancient linguistic form that evolved organically within Bharat’s linguistic traditions rather than being an imposition from foreign tongues.

Conclusion: The Ancient Roots of ‘Hindu’

The epigraphic and literary evidence unequivocally establishes that the term Hindu has been in continuous use since at least 500 BCE, as attested by the inscriptions of Darius I and Xerxes, which reference the land and people of Hi(n)du. However, the origins of the term extend far beyond these Persian records. The mention of Hapta-Hindu in the Avesta—a text predating these inscriptions—suggests that Hindu is as ancient as Sindhu and belongs to the Vedic age. This disproves modern narratives that claim the term is a foreign imposition or a relatively recent construct.

Furthermore, references to Hindu in pre-Islamic Arabic, Chinese, Greek, and Hebrew sources demonstrate that the identity associated with the term was well known across civilizations long before external invasions or colonial interpretations. The Hebrew Bible, for instance, uses Hodu for India, while Greek historians such as Hekataeus (6th century BCE) and Herodotus (5th century BCE) refer to Indoi, a derivative of Hindu. Chinese annals from the Han Dynasty (circa 100 BCE) use Hien-tu, later evolving into Yintu, further solidifying the recognition of this term across cultures.

The linguistic argument that Hindu emerged due to a Persian transformation of Sindhu does not hold upon closer examination. While the shift from S to H is a known phonetic change in certain linguistic traditions, it was not a foreign imposition but a natural phonetic evolution observable within Bharat itself. In Saurashtra, for example, local linguistic traditions exhibit a similar pattern—Somnath is often pronounced as Homnath, and Sorath becomes Horath. Additionally, the rules of Vedic Sanskrit phonetics, as outlined in texts like Nirukta, also permit the substitution of S with H, further supporting the indigenous development of the term.

Beyond linguistic transformations, the spiritual and cultural dimensions of the word Hindu are deeply embedded in Sanskrit literature. Texts such as the Brihaspati Agama, Meru Tantra, Madhava Digvijaya, and Vriddha Smriti explicitly define a Hindu in terms of noble conduct, adherence to Dharma, reverence for the Vedas and Gau Mata, and a spiritual connection to Bharat Bhumi. Even Kalidasa, one of the greatest poets of classical Sanskrit literature, uses the derivative Haindava, proving that the term was well-established in Bharat’s intellectual traditions long before any foreign influence.

Thus, the origins of Hindu from Sindhu are deeply rooted in Bharat’s own linguistic, cultural, and historical evolution. It is neither a name given by outsiders nor a colonial construct, but rather an inherent and ancient identity of the people of this land. The term Hindu signifies not just a geographical location but a civilizational ethos, embodying a lineage of philosophical, spiritual, and cultural continuity that has withstood the test of time.

 

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